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<\/a><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\u6700\u8fd1\uff0c\u5728\u5f53\u4ee3\u6700\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u4e4b\u4e00\u5c24\u5c14\u6839\u00b7\u54c8\u8d1d\u9a6c\u65af\uff08J\u00fcrgen Habermas\uff09\u901d\u4e16\u7684\u6d88\u606f\u540e\uff0c\u6211\u4e0e\u591a\u4f26\u591a\u5927\u5b66\u7684\u5f20\u519b\u6559\u6388\u6709\u4e00\u4e9b\u4ea4\u6d41\u3002\u6211\u4eec\u8c08\u53ca\u4e86\u8fd9\u4f4d\u601d\u60f3\u5de8\u64ce\u7684\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b66\u9057\u4ea7\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u4ed6\u7684\u7406\u8bba\u5728\u5f53\u4e0b\u8fd9\u4e2a\u5145\u6ee1\u6495\u88c2\u4e0e\u6781\u5316\u7684\u65f6\u4ee3\u4e2d\uff0c\u7a76\u7adf\u8fd8\u6709\u600e\u6837\u7684\u56de\u97f3\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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“\u6211\u7684\u89c2\u70b9\u975e\u5e38\u7b80\u5355\uff0c\u6211\u57fa\u672c\u4e0a\u8d5e\u540c\u54c8\u8d1d\u9a6c\u65af\u7684\u6838\u5fc3\u601d\u60f3\u3002\uff08\u5f53\u7136\u6211\u6240\u8d5e\u540c\u7684\u4ed6\u7684\u6838\u5fc3\u601d\u60f3\u53ea\u662f\u6211\u5bf9\u4ed6\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u7684\u4e00\u79cd\u7406\u89e3\uff0c\u4e0d\u4e00\u5b9a\u662f\u4ed6\u601d\u60f3\u672c\u6765\u60f3\u8868\u8fbe\u7684\u610f\u601d\u3002\uff09\u8fd8\u662f\u7528\u84b8\u9992\u5934\u8fd9\u4e2a\u6bd4\u55bb\uff0c\u5ddd\u666e\u653f\u5e9c\u5c31\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u9762\u6ca1\u6709\u63c9\u597d\u6ca1\u6709\u5145\u5206\u548c\u597d\u3001\u84b8\u51fa\u6765\u7684\u8f6f\u786c\u4e0d\u5747\u9178\u751c\u4e0d\u5747\u7684\u9992\u5934\u3002\u8fd9\u4e2a\u548c\u9762\u7684\u63c9\u9762\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\u5c31\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u5404\u65b9\u5bf9\u8bdd\u8ba8\u8bba\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\u3002\u5982\u679c\u7f8e\u56fd\u7684\u6c11\u4e3b\u53ea\u5269\u4e0b\u7684\u6295\u7968\uff0c\u90a3\u5c31\u5931\u53bb\u4e86\u4e09\u6743\u5236\u8861\u7684\u7075\u9b42\u3002\u7eaf\u7cb9\u7684\u4ef7\u503c\u6267\u5ff5\uff0c\u4e0e\u8fc7\u5206\u5f3a\u8c03\u7eaf\u7cb9\u7684\u7406\u6027\u6784\u5efa\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e24\u79cd\u503e\u5411\u9700\u8981\u534f\u5546\u8ba8\u8bba\u5e76\u5f62\u6210\u5171\u8bc6\u3002\u4e0d\u80fd\u53ea\u770b\u8c01\u7684\u7968\u6570\u591a\uff0c\u770b\u8c01\u5360\u4e0a\u98ce\u3002\u867d\u7136\u6bcf\u4eba\u4e00\u7968\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u4e0d\u662f\u6bcf\u4e2a\u4eba\u90fd\u6709\u4e00\u4e2a\u5b8c\u6574\u7684\u8111\u888b\u3002\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u4e8b\u540e\u56de\u5473\u8fd9\u6bb5\u53d1\u8a00\uff0c\u6211\u53d1\u73b0\u5b83\u5728\u67d0\u79cd\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e0a\uff0c\u53ef\u4ee5\u4f5c\u4e3a\u54c8\u8d1d\u9a6c\u65af\u201c\u534f\u5546\u6c11\u4e3b\u201d\uff08Deliberative Democracy\uff09\u4e0e\u201c\u4ea4\u5f80\u7406\u6027\u201d\uff08Communicative Rationality\uff09\u7684\u4e00\u79cd\u901a\u4fd7\u5316\u63a2\u8ba8\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\u4e5f\u6298\u5c04\u51fa\u7406\u8bba\u63a2\u8ba8\u4e0e\u73b0\u5b9e\u653f\u6cbb\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u5f20\u529b\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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\u54c8\u8d1d\u9a6c\u65af\u7684\u7406\u8bba\u5b8f\u53a6\u5efa\u7acb\u5728\u4e00\u4e2a\u6781\u5177\u7406\u60f3\u4e3b\u4e49\u8272\u5f69\u7684\u57fa\u77f3\u4e4b\u4e0a\u2014\u2014\u201c\u7406\u60f3\u7684\u8a00\u8c08\u60c5\u5883\u201d\uff08Ideal Speech Situation\uff09\u3002\u4ed6\u9884\u8bbe\u4e86\u516c\u6c11\u539f\u5219\u4e0a\u5177\u5907\u53c2\u4e0e\u7406\u6027\u4ea4\u5f80\u3001\u514b\u670d\u4e2a\u4eba\u504f\u89c1\u7684\u80fd\u529b\u3002\u4ed6\u66f4\u503e\u5411\u4e8e\u53bb\u6279\u5224\u548c\u6539\u5584\u88ab\u8d44\u672c\u3001\u5a92\u4f53\u548c\u6743\u529b\u626d\u66f2\u7684\u6c9f\u901a\u7ed3\u6784\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Recently, upon hearing the news of the passing of J\u00fcrgen Habermas, one of the most important contemporary philosophers, I had a conversation with a geography and history professor from the University of Toronto. We discussed this intellectual giant’s political philosophy legacy and how his theories resonate in our current era, which is fraught with division and polarization.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
During our discussion, I shared my personal interpretation of Habermas’s core ideas. While my remarks carried a strong sense of everyday realism and even a touch of pessimism, they genuinely reflected my observations on contemporary Western democracy, particularly the political reality in the United States:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
“My point is quite simple: I fundamentally agree with Habermas’s core ideas. (Of course, the core ideas I agree with are merely my understanding of his philosophy, which might not be exactly what his philosophy itself intended to express.) Using the metaphor of steaming buns (mantou), the Trump administration is like a bun made from dough that wasn’t kneaded well or thoroughly mixed\u2014resulting in a bun that is unevenly hard and soft, unevenly sour and sweet when steamed. This process of mixing and kneading the dough is akin to the process of dialogue and discussion among all parties. If American democracy is reduced solely to voting, it loses the soul of its checks and balances. The pure obsession with values and the overemphasis on pure rational construction\u2014these two tendencies require deliberative discussion to form a consensus. We cannot simply look at who has more votes or who gains the upper hand. Although it is one person, one vote, not everyone has a ‘complete brain’.”<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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Reflecting on these remarks afterward, I realized that, to some extent, they serve as an accessible exploration of Habermas’s concepts of “Deliberative Democracy” and “Communicative Rationality,” while also reflecting the tension between theoretical exploration and real-world politics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Revelation of “Kneading Dough”: The Irreplaceability of Dialogue and Discussion<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Comparing the process of dialogue among various political forces and the public to “kneading dough” actually aligns perfectly with the core concern of Habermas’s theory of communicative action in the political sphere. Habermas emphasized that the legitimacy of democracy should not stem merely from sheer authority, or from the cold calculations and zero-sum games between different interest groups, but rather from the process of rational deliberation among free and equal citizens in the public sphere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
If we skip the thorough “kneading”\u2014that is, if we lack broad, in-depth, and rational public debate\u2014and directly stuff the dough into the steamer called a “general election,” the resulting social form is bound to be “uneven in texture and taste.” As we have seen in American politics in recent years, the sense of social tearing and policy polarization are largely due to the loss of this prerequisite deliberation, making it increasingly difficult for different groups to understand each other.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Beware of “Vote-Centrism”: The Lost Soul of Democracy<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In our exchange, I mentioned: “If American democracy is reduced solely to voting, it loses the soul of its checks and balances… We cannot simply look at who has more votes or who gains the upper hand.” This perspective shares common ground with Habermas’s critique of purely “aggregative democracy.”<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Habermas opposed reducing democracy to mere “preference aggregation” (tallying voters’ desires like an accounting exercise, where sheer numbers dictate the winner). He argued that without rational public discussion as a prerequisite, voting easily degenerates into a blind numbers game. True democracy requires “deliberation before voting.” Neither the “pure obsession with values” based on extreme conservatism nor the “pure rational construction” based on elitism can be unilaterally imposed upon society; they must enter the public sphere to seek compromise and consensus through the unforced force of the better argument.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Rift Between Ideal and Reality: The Question of a “Complete Brain”<\/p>\n\n\n\n
However, the final sentence of my remarks veered into a subtle departure from Habermas’s theoretical premises\u2014a perplexity perhaps shared by many contemporary political observers: “Although it is one person, one vote, not everyone has a ‘complete brain’.”<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The grand edifice of Habermas’s theory is built upon a highly idealistic cornerstone: the “Ideal Speech Situation.” He presupposed that citizens inherently possess the capacity to participate in rational communication and overcome personal biases. He was more inclined to critique and improve the communication structures distorted by capital, media, and power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Yet, faced with reality\u2014especially today, when social media algorithms prevail and emotional expressions run rampant\u2014can individual voters truly maintain the ability for independent thought and rational deliberation at all times? My somewhat pessimistic assertion actually points to the practical dilemma deliberative democracy faces upon implementation: when the process of “kneading the dough” is hijacked by irrational emotions, can consensus based on rationality still be achieved?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Conclusion<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Although Habermas has passed away, the questions he left behind are more pressing than ever. Using “steamed buns” as a metaphor for complex political operations might lack strict academic rigor, but it genuinely reflects a yearning for good governance. In an era where votes are so easily swayed by emotion, revisiting Habermas’s steadfast commitment to “deliberation and consensus” is not merely a memorial to this great thinker; it is our endeavor to rediscover public rationality amidst the context of political polarization.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Following the passing of philosopher J\u00fcrgen Habermas, discussions highlighted his emphasis on democratic dialogue over mere voting. The need for rational consensus amidst emotional political landscapes, particularly in the U.S., remains critical today.<\/p>","protected":false},"author":17897162,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"image","meta":{"_coblocks_attr":"","_coblocks_dimensions":"","_coblocks_responsive_height":"","_coblocks_accordion_ie_support":"","_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_geoff_meta_description_en":"","_geoff_meta_description_zh":"","_wpcom_ai_launchpad_first_post":false,"_jetpack_hide_featured_image":false,"_jetpack_featured_image_duplicate_dismissed":0,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"Kneading Dough, Consensus, and a \"Complete Brain\": Remembering Habermas and Revisiting Deliberative Democracy","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":true,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[783694611,780925312],"tags":[787294093,787294092,787294089,787294091,787294096,787294095,787294090,787294088,787294094,787294097],"class_list":["post-12770","post","type-post","status-publish","format-image","hentry","category-philosophy-notes","category-reflections","tag-787294093","tag-787294092","tag-787294089","tag-787294091","tag-787294096","tag-787294095","tag-787294090","tag-787294088","tag-787294094","tag-787294097","post_format-post-format-image","","has-post-thumbnail","fallback-thumbnail"],"translatepress_titles":{"en_AU":"Kneading Dough, Consensus, and a \"Complete Brain\": Remembering Habermas and Revisiting Deliberative Democracy"},"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_likes_enabled":false,"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p1ar9H-3jY","jetpack_featured_media_url":"","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12770","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/17897162"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=12770"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12770\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":12787,"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12770\/revisions\/12787"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=12770"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=12770"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=12770"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}