{"id":11099,"date":"2025-10-01T12:54:04","date_gmt":"2025-10-01T02:54:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/?p=11099"},"modified":"2025-10-01T12:54:04","modified_gmt":"2025-10-01T02:54:04","slug":"psychological-behaviorism-and-philosophical-behaviorism-similarities-differences-and-evolution","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/geoffreychen.com\/zh\/psychological-behaviorism-and-philosophical-behaviorism-similarities-differences-and-evolution\/","title":{"rendered":"\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e0e\u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\uff1a\u5f02\u540c\u4e0e\u6f14\u53d8Psychological Behaviorism and Philosophical Behaviorism: Similarities, Differences, and Evolution"},"content":{"rendered":"

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\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e0e\u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\uff1a\u5f02\u540c\u4e0e\u6f14\u53d8<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

\u5f15\u8a00<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

20\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u5fc3\u7075\u4e0e\u884c\u4e3a\u7814\u7a76\u4e2d\uff0c\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong>\u66fe\u5728\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u4e0e\u54f2\u5b66\u4e24\u4e2a\u9886\u57df\u540c\u65f6\u5174\u8d77\u3002\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u8bd5\u56fe\u786e\u7acb\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u7684\u79d1\u5b66\u5730\u4f4d\uff0c\u800c\u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5219\u65e8\u5728\u6d88\u89e3\u7b1b\u5361\u5c14\u5fc3\u8eab\u4e8c\u5143\u8bba\u7684\u56f0\u5883\u3002\u867d\u7136\u4e8c\u8005\u540c\u540d\uff0c\u4f46\u5176\u76ee\u6807\u3001\u65b9\u6cd5\u548c\u7406\u8bba\u5185\u6db5\u5e76\u4e0d\u76f8\u540c\u3002\u672c\u6587\u5c06\u5bf9\u6bd4\u4e8c\u8005\u7684\u5f02\u540c\uff0c\u5e76\u68b3\u7406\u5176\u6f14\u53d8\u8109\u7edc\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u4e00\u3001\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u7531 \u7ea6\u7ff0\u00b7\u534e\u751f\uff08J.B. Watson\uff09<\/strong> \u57281913\u5e74\u63d0\u51fa\uff0c\u540e\u7ecf B.F. \u65af\u91d1\u7eb3\uff08Skinner\uff09<\/strong> \u53d1\u5c55\u800c\u6210\u4e3a20\u4e16\u7eaa\u4e2d\u671f\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u7684\u4e3b\u6d41\u3002\u5176\u6838\u5fc3\u7acb\u573a\u662f\uff1a<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  1. \u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u5e94\u5f53\u662f\u79d1\u5b66<\/strong> \u2192 \u53ea\u7814\u7a76\u53ef\u89c2\u5bdf\u7684\u884c\u4e3a<\/strong>\uff0c\u6392\u9664\u4e0d\u53ef\u9a8c\u8bc1\u7684\u201c\u5fc3\u7075\u201d\u4e0e\u201c\u610f\u8bc6\u201d\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  2. S-R\u6a21\u578b\uff08\u523a\u6fc0\u2014\u53cd\u5e94\uff09<\/strong> \u2192 \u4e00\u5207\u884c\u4e3a\u53ef\u4ee5\u7528\u523a\u6fc0\u4e0e\u53cd\u5e94\u7684\u5173\u7cfb\u6765\u89e3\u91ca\u3002\u590d\u6742\u884c\u4e3a\u53ea\u662f\u590d\u6742\u523a\u6fc0\u4e0e\u590d\u6742\u53cd\u5e94\u7684\u7ed3\u679c\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  3. \u9ed1\u7bb1\u7406\u8bba<\/strong> \u2192 \u6709\u673a\u4f53\u88ab\u89c6\u4e3a\u201c\u9ed1\u7bb1\u201d\uff0c\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u5bb6\u65e0\u9700\u7814\u7a76\u5176\u5185\u90e8\uff0c\u53ea\u9700\u7814\u7a76\u8f93\u5165\uff08\u523a\u6fc0\uff09\u4e0e\u8f93\u51fa\uff08\u53cd\u5e94\uff09\u7684\u5bf9\u5e94\u5173\u7cfb\u3002<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    \u8fd9\u79cd\u65b9\u6cd5\u8bba\u63a8\u52a8\u4e86\u5b9e\u9a8c\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u7684\u53d1\u5c55\uff0c\u4e5f\u4fc3\u8fdb\u4e86\u6559\u80b2\u3001\u884c\u4e3a\u77eb\u6b63\u7b49\u5b9e\u8df5\u5e94\u7528\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u5b83\u7684\u7f3a\u9677\u4e5f\u5f88\u660e\u663e\uff1a\u8fc7\u5ea6\u6392\u65a5\u201c\u5fc3\u7075\u201d\u6982\u5ff5\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u65e0\u6cd5\u89e3\u91ca\u8bed\u8a00\u4e60\u5f97\u3001\u521b\u9020\u6027\u601d\u7ef4\u4ee5\u53ca\u8d28\u6027\u4f53\u9a8c\uff08qualia\uff09<\/strong>\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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    \u4e8c\u3001\u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    \u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5219\u5174\u8d77\u4e8e20\u4e16\u7eaa\u4e2d\u671f\uff0c\u4ee3\u8868\u4eba\u7269\u662f \u5409\u5c14\u4f2f\u7279\u00b7\u8d56\u5c14\uff08Gilbert Ryle\uff09<\/strong>\u3002\u4ed6\u5728\u300a\u5fc3\u7684\u6982\u5ff5\u300b\u4e2d\u63d0\u51fa\uff1a<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n
    1. \u6279\u5224\u7b1b\u5361\u5c14\u4e8c\u5143\u8bba<\/strong> \u2192 \u7b1b\u5361\u5c14\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5fc3\u7075\u662f\u72ec\u7acb\u4e8e\u8eab\u4f53\u7684\u201c\u601d\u7ef4\u5b9e\u4f53\u201d\uff0c\u8d56\u5c14\u8bbd\u523a\u8fd9\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u201c\u673a\u5668\u91cc\u7684\u5e7d\u7075\u201d\u5047\u8bf4\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    2. \u8303\u7574\u9519\u8bef\uff08category mistake\uff09<\/strong> \u2192 \u628a\u201c\u5fc3\u7075\u201d\u5f53\u4f5c\u4e0e\u8eab\u4f53\u5e76\u5217\u7684\u5b9e\u4f53\uff0c\u662f\u6982\u5ff5\u4f7f\u7528\u7684\u9519\u8bef\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    3. \u5fc3\u7075\u5373\u884c\u4e3a\u503e\u5411<\/strong> \u2192 \u5f53\u6211\u4eec\u8bf4\u201c\u67d0\u4eba\u611f\u5230\u75db\u82e6\u201d\uff0c\u5176\u610f\u4e49\u4e0d\u5728\u4e8e\u6307\u79f0\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e0d\u53ef\u89c1\u7684\u201c\u5185\u5728\u5b9e\u4f53\u201d\uff0c\u800c\u662f\u63cf\u8ff0\u4ed6\u5728\u7279\u5b9a\u6761\u4ef6\u4e0b\u4f1a\u8868\u73b0\u51fa\u7684\u884c\u4e3a\u6216\u503e\u5411\u3002<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

      \u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u65e8\u5728\u901a\u8fc7\u8bed\u8a00\u548c\u6982\u5ff5\u5206\u6790\u6d88\u89e3\u5fc3\u7075\u5b9e\u4f53\u7684\u5047\u8bbe\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u5b83\u540c\u6837\u9762\u4e34\u6279\u8bc4\uff1a\u5c06\u201c\u5fc3\u7075\u201d\u8fd8\u539f\u4e3a\u201c\u884c\u4e3a\u503e\u5411\u201d\u8fc7\u4e8e\u7b80\u5316\uff0c\u5ffd\u89c6\u4e86\u610f\u8bc6\u7684\u4e3b\u89c2\u8d28\u611f\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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      \u4e09\u3001\u4e8c\u8005\u7684\u5f02\u540c<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
      \u7ef4\u5ea6<\/strong><\/th>\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong><\/th>\u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong><\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
      \u7814\u7a76\u76ee\u6807<\/strong><\/td>\u628a\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u5efa\u7acb\u4e3a\u81ea\u7136\u79d1\u5b66<\/td>\u6f84\u6e05\u5fc3\u7075\u8bed\u8a00\u3001\u6279\u5224\u4e8c\u5143\u8bba<\/td><\/tr>
      \u7814\u7a76\u65b9\u6cd5<\/strong><\/td>\u5b9e\u9a8c\u89c2\u5bdf\u3001S-R\u6a21\u578b<\/td>\u8bed\u8a00\u5206\u6790\u3001\u6982\u5ff5\u6279\u5224<\/td><\/tr>
      \u6838\u5fc3\u7acb\u573a<\/strong><\/td>\u6392\u9664\u4e0d\u53ef\u89c2\u5bdf\u7684\u5fc3\u7075\uff0c\u53ea\u7814\u7a76\u884c\u4e3a<\/td>\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5fc3\u7075\u672f\u8bed = \u884c\u4e3a\u65b9\u5f0f\u6216\u503e\u5411<\/td><\/tr>
      \u5bf9\u201c\u5185\u5728\u72b6\u6001\u201d\u7684\u6001\u5ea6<\/strong><\/td>\u89c6\u4e3a\u4e0d\u53ef\u7814\u7a76\u3001\u6392\u9664<\/td>\u91cd\u65b0\u89e3\u91ca\u4e3a\u201c\u503e\u5411\u201d\uff0c\u5426\u8ba4\u5176\u72ec\u7acb\u5b9e\u4f53\u6027<\/td><\/tr>
      \u4ee3\u8868\u4eba\u7269<\/strong><\/td>Watson, Skinner<\/td>Ryle, \u540e\u671f\u7ef4\u7279\u6839\u65af\u5766<\/td><\/tr>
      \u4e3b\u8981\u8d21\u732e<\/strong><\/td>\u63a8\u52a8\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u79d1\u5b66\u5316<\/td>\u6253\u7834\u5fc3\u8eab\u4e8c\u5143\u8bba\u7684\u5b9e\u4f53\u5316\u601d\u7ef4<\/td><\/tr>
      \u4e3b\u8981\u7f3a\u9677<\/strong><\/td>\u65e0\u6cd5\u89e3\u91ca\u590d\u6742\u8ba4\u77e5\u4e0e\u8d28\u6027\u4f53\u9a8c<\/td>\u5ffd\u89c6\u4e3b\u89c2\u610f\u8bc6\u7684\u4e0d\u53ef\u8fd8\u539f\u6027<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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      \u56db\u3001\u6f14\u53d8\u4e0e\u8d85\u8d8a<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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      1. \u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u5c42\u9762<\/strong>\uff1a\n
          \n
        • \u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e3b\u5bfc\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u51e0\u5341\u5e74\uff0c\u4f46\u572820\u4e16\u7eaa50\u201360\u5e74\u4ee3\u88ab\u201c\u8ba4\u77e5\u9769\u547d\u201d\u53d6\u4ee3\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • \u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u91cd\u65b0\u9762\u5bf9\u201c\u5fc3\u7075\u201d\uff0c\u8f6c\u5411\u7814\u7a76\u4fe1\u606f\u5904\u7406\u3001\u8bb0\u5fc6\u7ed3\u6784\u3001\u8bed\u8a00\u4e60\u5f97\u7b49\u95ee\u9898\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • \u73b0\u4ee3\u8ba4\u77e5\u79d1\u5b66\u4e0e\u795e\u7ecf\u79d1\u5b66\u6210\u4e3a\u65b0\u4e3b\u6d41\u3002<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • \u54f2\u5b66\u5c42\u9762<\/strong>\uff1a\n
            \n
          • \u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u56e0\u65e0\u6cd5\u89e3\u91ca\u4e3b\u89c2\u7ecf\u9a8c\u800c\u9010\u6e10\u5931\u52bf\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
          • \u968f\u540e\u5174\u8d77\u7684\u529f\u80fd\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong>\u4e0e\u7269\u7406\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong>\uff0c\u8bd5\u56fe\u5728\u4fdd\u7559\u79d1\u5b66\u6027\u7684\u540c\u65f6\u89e3\u91ca\u5fc3\u7075\u3002<\/li>\n\n\n\n
          • \u5f53\u4ee3\u5fc3\u7075\u54f2\u5b66\u5173\u6ce8\u7684\u91cd\u5fc3\u8f6c\u5411\u201c\u610f\u8bc6\u7684\u56f0\u96be\u95ee\u9898\u201d\u201c\u611f\u8d28\u201d\u201c\u4eba\u5de5\u667a\u80fd\u4e0e\u5fc3\u7075\u5173\u7cfb\u201d\u3002<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
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            \u7ed3\u8bba<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

            \u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e0e\u54f2\u5b66\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u867d\u540c\u5c5e\u201c\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u201d\u8303\u7574\uff0c\u4f46\u4e00\u4e2a\u662f\u65b9\u6cd5\u8bba\u4e0a\u7684\u79d1\u5b66\u5b9e\u9a8c\u7acb\u573a\uff0c\u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u662f\u6982\u5ff5\u4e0a\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u6279\u5224\u3002\u4e8c\u8005\u7684\u5171\u540c\u70b9\u5728\u4e8e\uff1a\u90fd\u8bd5\u56fe\u6d88\u89e3\u201c\u5fc3\u7075\u201d\u4f5c\u4e3a\u72ec\u7acb\u5b9e\u4f53\u7684\u4f20\u7edf\u89c2\u5ff5\uff0c\u5f3a\u8c03\u4ece\u5916\u90e8\u53ef\u89c2\u5bdf\u7684\u884c\u4e3a\u51fa\u53d1\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u4e8c\u8005\u7684\u5dee\u5f02\u4e5f\u5f88\u660e\u663e\uff1a\u524d\u8005\u5173\u6ce8\u7ecf\u9a8c\u7814\u7a76\uff0c\u540e\u8005\u5173\u6ce8\u8bed\u8a00\u5206\u6790\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            \u968f\u7740\u65f6\u95f4\u63a8\u79fb\uff0c\u4e8c\u8005\u90fd\u56e0\u5ffd\u89c6\u610f\u8bc6\u7684\u8d28\u6027\u7ef4\u5ea6\u800c\u9010\u6e10\u88ab\u53d6\u4ee3\uff0c\u4f46\u5b83\u4eec\u5728\u63a8\u52a8\u5fc3\u7406\u5b66\u79d1\u5b66\u5316\u3001\u6f84\u6e05\u54f2\u5b66\u56f0\u5883\u65b9\u9762\u7559\u4e0b\u4e86\u6df1\u8fdc\u5f71\u54cd\u3002\u4eca\u5929\uff0c\u7814\u7a76\u8005\u5728\u8d85\u8d8a\u884c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u4e49\u7684\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u4e5f\u4ecd\u7136\u7ee7\u627f\u4e86\u5b83\u5f3a\u8c03\u5b9e\u8bc1\u4e0e\u53ef\u89c2\u5bdf\u6027\u7684\u7cbe\u795e\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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            Psychological Behaviorism and Philosophical Behaviorism: Similarities, Differences, and Evolution<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

            Introduction<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

            In the study of mind and behavior during the twentieth century, behaviorism<\/strong> emerged in both psychology and philosophy. Psychological behaviorism sought to establish psychology as a science, while philosophical behaviorism aimed to dissolve the Cartesian dilemma of mind-body dualism. Although they share the same name, their aims, methods, and theoretical content differ considerably. This essay compares their similarities and differences and traces their historical evolution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            \n\n\n\n

            I. Psychological Behaviorism<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

            Psychological behaviorism was initiated by John B. Watson (1878\u20131958)<\/strong> in 1913 and later developed by B.F. Skinner (1904\u20131990)<\/strong> into the dominant paradigm of mid-twentieth-century psychology. Its core commitments include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              \n
            1. Psychology must be scientific<\/strong> \u2192 Only observable behavior<\/strong> should be studied, while unverifiable notions of \u201cmind\u201d or \u201cconsciousness\u201d should be excluded.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            2. The S-R model (stimulus\u2013response)<\/strong> \u2192 All behavior can be explained in terms of stimulus\u2013response relations; complex behavior is merely the product of complex stimuli.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            3. The \u201cblack box\u201d approach<\/strong> \u2192 The organism is treated as a \u201cblack box\u201d; psychologists need only analyze the relations between input (stimuli) and output (responses), without speculating about inner states.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

              This approach advanced experimental psychology and found practical application in education and behavioral modification. However, its major weakness lay in the complete exclusion of \u201cmind,\u201d leaving it incapable of explaining language acquisition, creativity, and the qualitative dimension (qualia)<\/strong> of experience.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              \n\n\n\n

              II. Philosophical Behaviorism<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

              Philosophical behaviorism arose in mid-twentieth-century analytic philosophy, with Gilbert Ryle<\/strong> as its central figure. In The Concept of Mind<\/em> (1949), Ryle argued that:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                \n
              1. Critique of Cartesian dualism<\/strong> \u2192 Descartes\u2019 notion of mind as an independent \u201cthinking substance\u201d is ridiculed as a \u201cghost in the machine.\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n
              2. Category mistake<\/strong> \u2192 Treating \u201cmind\u201d as if it were a separate entity parallel to the body is a mistake in the use of concepts.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
              3. Mind as behavioral dispositions<\/strong> \u2192 To say \u201csomeone is in pain\u201d does not refer to an invisible inner entity but to patterns of behavior or dispositions to behave in certain ways.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

                Philosophical behaviorism thus sought to dissolve the idea of mind as an inner substance through linguistic and conceptual analysis. Its shortcoming, however, was an over-simplification that ignored the irreducible subjective quality of consciousness<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                \n\n\n\n

                III. Similarities and Differences<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
                Dimension<\/strong><\/th>Psychological Behaviorism<\/strong><\/th>Philosophical Behaviorism<\/strong><\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                Origin<\/strong><\/td>Early 20th-century American psychology<\/td>Mid-20th-century British analytic philosophy<\/td><\/tr>
                Focus<\/strong><\/td>Establish psychology as a natural science<\/td>Clarify mental language, critique dualism<\/td><\/tr>
                Core Theory<\/strong><\/td>S-R model, experimental method<\/td>Category mistake, mind = behavioral dispositions<\/td><\/tr>
                View of inner states<\/strong><\/td>Excluded as unscientific<\/td>Redefined as dispositions, not independent entities<\/td><\/tr>
                Methods<\/strong><\/td>Empirical experiments, conditioning<\/td>Linguistic and conceptual analysis<\/td><\/tr>
                Figures<\/strong><\/td>Watson, Skinner<\/td>Ryle, later Wittgenstein<\/td><\/tr>
                Contribution<\/strong><\/td>Promoted psychology\u2019s scientific rigor<\/td>Challenged the Cartesian picture of mind<\/td><\/tr>
                Weakness<\/strong><\/td>Failed to explain cognition, language, qualia<\/td>Failed to capture subjective experience<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
                \n\n\n\n

                IV. Evolution and Beyond<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
                  \n
                1. In Psychology<\/strong>:\n
                    \n
                  • Behaviorism dominated for decades but was replaced by the cognitive revolution<\/strong> (1950s\u20131960s).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                  • Psychology re-engaged with the study of \u201cmind\u201d through models of information processing, memory, and language.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                  • Today, cognitive science and neuroscience are central.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                  • In Philosophy<\/strong>:\n
                      \n
                    • Philosophical behaviorism declined as it failed to address subjective experience.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                    • Functionalism<\/strong> and physicalism<\/strong> arose, seeking to preserve scientific rigor while explaining mental states.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                    • Contemporary philosophy of mind focuses on the \u201chard problem of consciousness,\u201d qualia, and the implications of AI.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
                      \n\n\n\n

                      Conclusion<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

                      Though both psychological and philosophical behaviorism fall under the same label, the former was a methodological stance in experimental psychology, while the latter was a conceptual critique in philosophy. Both rejected the notion of mind as an independent inner substance and emphasized observable behavior. Yet their emphases diverged: psychology pursued empirical science, while philosophy pursued conceptual clarity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                      Over time, both approaches were found wanting, particularly in their neglect of consciousness and qualia. Still, behaviorism left a lasting impact: it advanced psychology\u2019s scientific rigor and freed philosophy from Cartesian metaphysical assumptions. Today, while we move beyond behaviorism, its insistence on observability and rigor continues to shape both psychology and philosophy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                      \n\n\n\n

                      <\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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